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EU Urban Mobility Observatory
  • 28 November 2025

Strategic planning for Demand Responsive Transport: Insights from European projects

Topic
  • Collective passenger transport
  • Shared mobility
  • Traffic and demand management
  • Urban mobility planning
Country
  • Europe-wide
Resource type
  • Case study
Demand responsive transport

Demand Responsive Transport (DRT) offers responsive, flexible and efficient mobility where conventional public transport and other shared mobility options are often unviable - particularly in rural, suburban, and peripheral areas with low demand. 

This case study draws on diverse European pilots and projects showing how co-designed DRT services can be embedded in the SUMP framework - from inclusion in regional mobility strategies, to the rollout of tailored services in rural, touristic or seasonal contexts, and integration into wider ticketing and digital routing information systems. 

Together, these examples show how coordinated planning and governance through a mobility framework can deliver more inclusive, adaptive transport solutions.

Context

Demand Responsive Transport (DRT), also known as on-demand transport, is not a new concept. Before the rise of mobile apps and intelligent transport systems (ITS), early forms of DRT already existed, relying on pre-bookings (via telephone calls or other forms) and flexible routing to connect passengers in low-demand areas. With digitalisation, real-time data and platform-based operations have transformed its capabilities and popularity. DRT is now increasingly recognised as a valuable solution to address mobility gaps, particularly in areas with low, dispersed, or uneven demand. 

Unlike traditional public transport, which operates on fixed routes and timetables, DRT services adapt dynamically to users’ requests. Passengers book trips via mobile apps, websites, or call centres, and algorithms plan journeys in real time to consolidate demand. This flexibility enables DRT to serve dispersed or low-density neighbourhoods where regular public transport would be uneconomic. It can also replace underutilised public transport services during off-peak hours, reducing the environmental and economic costs of running nearly empty vehicles. Beyond improving coverage, DRT can help reduce car dependency by aggregating trips, lowering vehicle-kilometres travelled and emissions per passenger. When vehicles and fleets are rightly sized to the level of demand, operational efficiency further improves. Well-integrated DRT services also strengthen intermodal connectivity by linking passengers with mainline public transport and active travel options – an important step towards door-to-door mobility in a Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) system.

This case study focuses on Central Europe, where many regions face limited access to public transport and shared mobility solutions. Here, DRT has the potential to improve accessibility, social inclusion, and environmental performance while keeping public service provision financially viable. The growing interest in DRT reflects broader regional objectives to decarbonise transport, enhance territorial cohesion, and provide equitable access to mobility.

Several Central European initiatives underpin this case study. The DREAM_PACE project (Demand REsponsive trAnsport integrating regional Mobility networks for PAssengers in Central Europe) explores how DRT can be integrated into regional mobility networks through co-designed solutions across five different countries in the central Europe region. 

The Sprinti project in the Hannover region (Lower Saxony, Germany) provides an on-demand bus service (see Figure 1) to improve spatio-temporal accessibility and reduce emissions in peripheral areas. 

Sprinti on demand bus in the Hannover Region

Figure 1. Sprinti on demand buses in the Hannover Region. Image Source – Sprinti, Hannover Region

Another relevant initiative is a nationwide study in Germany that assesses the quality, acceptance, and utilisation of all on-demand services compared to conventional scheduled services. 

Additional insights are drawn from projects such as SUSTANCE, NUTSHELL, and Trans-borders, which explore innovative governance schemes and regional/cross-border connectivity.

The experiences of these projects show that successful DRT integration extends beyond deploying vehicles or digital platforms. It depends on coherent governance, interoperable systems, and participatory planning that engages local communities. Embedding DRT within the SUMP framework helps ensure services are aligned with long-term mobility strategies, supported by clear governance structures, and systematically monitored for performance. Through this integration, DRT can evolve from short-term pilots into stable, scalable components of regional mobility networks – supporting more inclusive, adaptive and sustainable transport systems.

In action

The different projects explored in this case study provide insights that are worth learning from, adopting and replicating. The DREAM_PACE project involves four pilots developed in six Living Labs across five Central Europe countries​​ – ​​​Baden​​-​Württemberg​ (DE)​, Bologna​ (IT)​, Budapest​ (HU)​, East Tyrol​ (AT)​, Split-Dalmatia County​ (HR)​, and Pavia​ (IT). The DRT initiatives within these pilots involve co-designed solutions with local authorities and operators, ​including​ testing digital solutions, flexible routing, and diverse governance and operational models in partnership with relevant stakeholders. The pilots illustrate the diversity of DRT implementation across Central Europe. They range from the introduction of DRT for the first time in Split-Dalmatia County (Croatia), to service expansion in rural and mountainous areas such as East Tyrol, and integration with metropolitan and regional transport networks in Budapest, Pavia, and Baden-Württemberg. Bologna’s focus lies in governance and regulation, embedding DRT into strategic mobility planning and the SUMP framework.

The Sprinti project in Lower Saxony has advanced rapidly, recording 570,000 rides in its first year - 80% of which were booked digitally - and is now scaling from three to eleven municipalities to better connect suburban areas with regional public transport and to also focus on flexible vehicle use during low demand periods. Sprinti also carried out extensive branding and outreach programmes to increase digital inclusiveness, while integrating services to the local public transport fare and app system in Hannover. 

At the national level, Germany’s comprehensive DRT study is standardising and defining different types of DRTs for uniformity across studies. It is also in the process of analysing the accessibility of DRT services in comparison to public transport services. 

Despite their differences, all these initiatives apply SUMP principles: active stakeholder involvement, co-design of solutions, multi-level planning and coordination, and continuous monitoring and evaluation. 

SUMP cycle

Figure 2. The Sustainable Urban Mobility Planning (SUMP) Cycle.

The SUMP-based planning and implementation across the 4 phases is demonstrated using the DREAM_PACE project as an example below:

Phase 1: Preparation and analysis

Each Living Lab began with an extensive situation assessment of mobility gaps and user needs. In Split-Dalmatia County, this involved analysing seasonal flows between suburban and rural destinations. In East Tyrol, the analysis identified dispersed settlements on hilly terrain where conventional bus services were inefficient. Regular meetings helped to define problems collaboratively and agree priorities.

Phase 2: Strategy development

DRT concepts were then aligned with broader mobility strategies to ensure complementarity with existing services. In Budapest and Pavia, new DRT lines were integrated into regional transport networks, ensuring that services complemented rather than duplicated existing public transport. Bologna focused on establishing governance and regulatory frameworks that formally recognise DRT within the sustainable mobility system.

Phase 3: Measure planning and co-design

Stakeholder engagement was central to designing the solutions. Local authorities, technology providers, operators, and diverse user groups – including young people, women, and the elderly - contributed to shaping service design. Examples include new ticketing and operational models in Baden-Württemberg and flexible routing in East Tyrol. The participatory approach helped refine service models and improve social acceptance.

Phase 4: Implementation, monitoring and evaluation

Once pilots were launched, partners introduced monitoring mechanisms to track ridership, accessibility, and efficiency. Regular Living Lab meetings (see Figure 3) beyond the project’s lifetime support continuous feedback and adjustments of routes, booking systems, and service integration. In Sprinti, this continuous evaluation was key to scaling operations across additional municipalities.

DREAM_PACE's stakeholder engagement and solutions' co-creation activities in Budapest

Figure 3. DREAM_PACE's stakeholder engagement and solutions' co-creation activities in Budapest.

Together, these experiences demonstrate that DRT can be effectively tailored to different contexts - from dense metropolitan regions to sparsely populated rural areas. Applying SUMP principles ensures that implementation is systematic rather than ad-hoc – embedding DRT within broader mobility planning. Co-design, strong governance, and iterative evaluations provide a strong foundation for scaling DRT as a core element of sustainable urban mobility systems in Europe. 

Results

The pilots and analyses demonstrate the strong contribution that DRT systems can make to low-emission, inclusive and accessible mobility systems. When designed and governed within the SUMP framework, DRT moves beyond isolated pilots to become an integral component of regional transport networks.

Within the DREAM_PACE project, results across all sites showed improved access to essential services in low-demand areas, higher user satisfaction, and closer coordination between local authorities and operators. In places like East Tyrol and Split-Dalmatia County, the DRT services enhanced spatiotemporal coverage and improved seasonal flexibility. In the metropolitan pilots in Budapest and Pavia, the DRT services were successfully integrated with the regional ticketing and public transport services.

A structured and participative approach towards the planning of these services has been key to its success, centred around the strategic and holistic approach set by the SUMP process. 

  • Phase 1 establishes robust baselines through spatial and transport assessments, stakeholder mapping, and governance review, clarifying the existing challenges and the opportunities for DRT.
  • Phase 2 aligns DRT strategies with broader mobility visions and measurable targets.
  • Phase 3 develops identifies viable operational models, funding schemes and digital tools, while emphasising integration into a Mobility as a Service (MaaS) approach for seamless access and coordination.
  • Phase 4 ensures continuous monitoring, evaluation, and adaptation.

The tools and results generated through this process are compiled into a practical methodology in the DREAM_PACE Topic Guide for DRT in SUMPs. 

The Sprinti services have expanded rapidly across the Hannover and Lower Saxony region. With over 570,000 rides during its first year alone, it has evidenced the success of its service model, branding strategy and digital inclusivity outreach (with the vast majority of services booked digitally). A survey on the impacts of Sprinti services by the Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik (Difu) has also shown a modal shift away from private car use, with 40% of users stating they would have otherwise travelled by car. Moreover, it cites mobility poverty reduction and social inclusion (especially in rural and peripheral regions), with one-third of respondents reporting they would not have made trips if not for the Sprinti services.

Germany’s national level DRT study has successfully defined six categories of DRT services to standardise studies and their analysis, and conducted a data collection and consultation process to assess DRT statistics at the national level. A total of 1,294 on-demand services have been recorded throughout Germany, with a coverage gap in 74 districts and cities. On-demand buses and call/shared taxis were the most common types of services. Most of the services supplement or replace regular public transport services, while just a few (6%) operate as “on-top comfort” services in addition to public transport. Overall, the DRT services in Germany are characterised by their flexible routing, digital booking systems, and diverse organisational models involving both public and private actors. However, they face challenges such as inconsistent fare structures, complex legal frameworks, and limited integration with conventional public transport networks. As a next step, an evaluation methodology for assessing DRTs in comparison to conventional modes of public transport will be developed.

Overall, the results show that embedding DRT within structured planning and governance frameworks enables more efficient, inclusive and transferable mobility solutions - helping cities and regions advance towards sustainable, multimodal transport systems.

Challenges, opportunities and transferability

The SUMP framework has proven highly valuable for guiding the integration of DRT and offers strong transferability potential for regions at different stages of implementation. Based on the core SUMP principles - stakeholder involvement, co-design of solutions, multi-level coordination, and continuous evaluation – it provides a structured approach for embedding DRT within existing mobility networks and adapting solutions to diverse local contexts.

Main challenges and considerations

  • Financing, ticketing, and regulation: Operating DRT can be as costly as conventional public transport, requiring public funding or subsidies to ensure affordability and attract multimodal users. To be sustainable, DRT must be formally recognised in regional mobility strategies, planning documents and SUMPs as a flexible public transport service - distinct from commercial or taxi-based operations – and supported by adaptability in fleet size and routing based on demand.
  • User acceptance and social behaviour: While DRT can successfully shift car users to more sustainable mobility, digital interfaces often appeal most to younger, digitally confident users. Older adults or those less familiar with digital tools may face barriers. Simplified apps and targeted outreach are key to ensuring wider uptake across all demographics.
  • Stakeholder collaboration and operational planning: Effective DRT operations rely on coordination among mobility providers. Services can address public transport gaps, acting as feeder systems or optimising off-peak routes, but only if stakeholders work together within a structured planning system.
  • Data availability and capacity building: Comprehensive spatial, demographic, and transport data are needed for DRT planning, particularly for identifying mobility needs of vulnerable groups or areas with limited public transport coverage. Training for planners, operators and drivers support continuous performance monitoring and optimisation.

Opportunities and transferability

  • Flexibility and integration: DRT’s adaptable routing and vehicle use allows it to complement or replace traditional public transport where needed and integrate seamlessly into a MaaS approach, enhancing connectivity and user experience.
  • Electrification and automation: DRT fleets are easier to electrify than traditional public transport due to their operational flexibility and smaller vehicle size, reducing environmental footprints. Future automation can further improve efficiency.
  • Scalability and replication: When implemented within a structured SUMP process, DRT solutions can be adapted and scaled to other cities or regions. Ensuring supportive financial, institutional, and data frameworks enables successful adaptation to local conditions.

Overall, DRT integration offers significant potential to make urban and regional mobility more inclusive, efficient and sustainable. By addressing financial, social and regulatory challenges, and leveraging their inherent flexibility and digital foundations, cities can replicate and scale DRT solutions effectively. 

In depth

This case study draws lessons from a few EU and national projects integrating DRT into public transport and SUMP frameworks:

DREAM_PACE (Interreg Central Europe)

  • Project duration: 03.2023 - 02.2026
  • Lead partner: SRM Networks and Mobility (IT)

Sprinti - on-demand transport in the Hannover region

  • Project duration: 12.2021 – 12.2024
  • Project coordinator: Rupprecht Consult

Nationwide overview and evaluation of on-demand transport services compared to "classic" scheduled public transport services

  • Project duration: 04.2024 – 10.2026
  • Project coordinators: TRAPICO GmbH & Rupprecht Consult GmbH

List of References & Sources:

Links

DREAM_PACE: Demand REsponsive trAnsport integrating regional Mobility networks for PAssengers in Central Europe

Sprinti - on-demand transport in the Hannover region

 

Authors: Hassan Hussin, Joseph Paul, Daniel Franco

Views and opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not reflect those of the European Commission. 

Photo credits © Sprinti project (Hannover Region), BKK, alexfan32