Lessons from Kraków and Palma on implementing Urban Vehicle Access Regulations

Dynaxibility4CE was an Interreg Central Europe-funded project which ran from 2020 to 2022 and aimed to enhance urban mobility and improve air quality through innovative low-carbon solutions. This case study focuses on the work carried out by two of the project’s partner cities, Kraków (PL) and Parma (IT), highlighting their action plans and scenario developments for implementing Urban Vehicle Access Regulations (UVARs). 

The cities developed action plans to implement low-emission zones (LEZs), restricting high-emission vehicles and promoting cleaner transport alternatives in alignment with broader urban mobility goals. 

By actively involving stakeholders and fostering cross-sectoral cooperation, the project developed integral strategies that took into account environmental, social, and economic impact. 

The project emphasised the importance of clear monitoring and evaluation strategies to assess UVAR performance, social impact and ensure long-term effectiveness. Despite challenges such as public resistance and the need for substantial resources, the project demonstrated the potential of UVARs to create a healthier, more sustainable urban environment.

Context

What are UVARs and how do they benefit cities?

UVARs are a valuable tool for addressing urban challenges, such as air pollution, congestion, and greenhouse gas emissions. These regulations manage and restrict vehicle access to specific urban areas, promoting and incentivising cleaner and more sustainable mobility solutions such as public transport and active mobility.  

There are different types of UVARs, depending on the scope and nature of the regulation. 

• Low Emission Zones (LEZ) - Restrict circulation of high-emission vehicles. This was the selected approach for Parma and Krakow.
• Zero Emission Zones (ZEZ) - Allowing only zero-emission vehicles.
• Limited Traffic Zones (LTZ) – Requiring specific permits, which may depend on vehicle type, emission level, or time of day.
• Tolling / congestion charge - Establishing fees to access specific roads or areas
• Pedestrian zones – Designating vehicle-free areas. 

Despite their benefits, implementing UVARs present challenges, such as public acceptance and ensuring social equity. Cities must invest in public engagement, clear communication, and supportive measures like subsidies for cleaner vehicles or improved public transport options.

A strategic and coordinated approach to UVAR planning, design and implementation, grounded in the sustainable urban mobility plan (SUMP) methodology, is critical for its success. This ensures alignment with broader urban mobility goals, while addressing specific local challenges. The SUMP methodology promotes an integrated, evidence-based framework that prioritises stakeholder engagement, public acceptance, and the evaluation of environmental, social and economic impact. 

By involving a diverse range of stakeholders early in the process - including residents, businesses and public authorities - transparency is fostered and trust is built, both of which are essential for compliance and effectiveness.

Dynaxibility4CE, UVAR and SUMP

This approach was followed by the Interreg Central Europe-funded project Dynaxibility4CE. The project supported public transport authorities to manage the complexities of innovative mobility solutions, such as UVARs, through a SUMP-based planning process. 

Public transport and local authorities from seven partner cities and regions (functional urban areas) participated, developing action plans for low-emission mobility while using the tools and strategies developed by the project. Among the partner cities, Kraków and Parma focused on UVARs, selecting this regulatory approach to reduce air pollution and improve urban mobility. 

A dynamic and flexible (i.e. Dynaxibility) approach to UVAR planning is essential, as it allows cities to adapt to evolving circumstances, technologies, and stakeholder needs, ensuring long-term effectiveness and acceptance of the measures.

The Dynaxibility4CE project highlights that urban environments and mobility patterns are inherently complex and subject to rapid change, including shifts in public transport use, technological advancements, or unexpected societal challenges (e.g. pandemics). By adopting a dynamic approach, cities can refine UVAR policies based on real-time data, stakeholder feedback and performance monitoring. This flexibility not only improves the relevance and efficiency of UVAR measures but also enhances public acceptance by demonstrating responsiveness to concerns and changing needs. Thus, the project aimed to ensure that UVARs remain a viable tool for reducing emissions and promoting sustainable mobility in a constantly evolving urban context.

Context and background

Kraków

For some time, Kraków has been struggling with persistent air quality issues, with vehicle emissions being a significant contributor to pollution and the resulting health risks. This problem may worsen if solutions are not created to motivate the replacement of an ageing vehicle fleet and address dense urban traffic. As a result of poor air quality, 46,000 people die prematurely each year in Poland (Clean Air Fund, 2022). Other studies, focusing specifically on estimates for Kraków, indicate approximately 800 local deaths.

To improve this situation, the city has made significant efforts, adopting a cross-sector approach that includes more efficient heating systems, developing regional cooperation through the Kraków Metropolis Association to address incoming traffic and pollution, and restricting the use of solid fuels.

However, further actions were needed and, as part of the Dynaxibility4CE project, Kraków developed an action plan aimed at reducing levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) to improve public health and align with the goals outlined in Kraków's SUMP (Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan). The Kraków Clean Transport Zone, LEZ Kraków (Strefa Czystego Transportu w Krakowie) emerged as an appropriate solution after extensive analysis of UVAR options, numerous public workshops, and reviews of existing policies such as the Air Protection Programme and Parking Policy.

A LEZ was identified as an effective option to help meet the challenge by restricting access for the most polluting vehicles and encouraging a shift toward other, less emission-intensive modes of transport (both individual and public), in line with the city's broader air protection policy. The proposed solution focuses on the main source of NOx air pollution in the city, providing a realistic and effective pathway to reducing harmful emissions, promoting sustainable mobility, and thereby improving public health and enhancing residents' quality of life.

By focusing on the most polluting vehicles and promoting cleaner mobility, Kraków's Clean Transport Zone complies with local, national and broader EU regulations (and even stems from them), ensuring a structured and effective achievement of improved air quality in the city and more sustainable urban transport.

Parma

Similarly, Parma's decision to implement a LEZ was driven by the urgent need to address air quality issues caused by high levels of traffic-related pollution. These pollutants pose public health and environmental risk, requiring the city to find effective solutions to manage mobility demand and reduce congestion, while advancing sustainability goals. 

A LEZ was identified as a suitable solution, as it directly targets the root cause of poor air quality by restricting high-emission vehicles, while promoting cleaner alternatives, such as public transport, cycling and electric vehicles. This approach aligns with Parma's broader SUMP, fostering behavioural change and advancing the city's environmental and public health objectives.

In action

Kraków

Kraków undertook a detailed planning process to address air pollution and improve mobility through the development of a LEZ. It integrated findings from the LIFE project, which forecasted mobility patterns across various transport modes as part of a holistic approach aiming to enhance the city’s low-carbon mobility.

The planning process included multiple stages and stakeholder consultations. The city first analysed a range of UVAR options, referencing the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) Topic Guide on UVARs to assess their feasibility and potential impact. A broad cross-sectoral approach ensured alignment across departments. Following these consultations, the LEZ was identified as the most effective strategy for improving air quality.

Public engagement also played a critical role in the process. In December 2020, focus group workshops were organised to gather residents' opinions on the LEZ concept. These discussions provided valuable insight into public concerns, which informed both the design and communication strategies for the initiative. Additionally, a review of existing policies - including the Air Protection Programme, Low-Emission Economy Plan, Transport Policy, and Parking Policy - ensured the LEZ was consistent with the broader urban planning framework. Detailed emission studies were also conducted to assess the impact of transport-related pollutants, helping to define the scope and objectives of the LEZ.

However, significant challenges arose during this planning process, particularly in securing public acceptance due to concerns about the financial and social impact of the LEZ. These issues were addressed through transparent communication and tailored outreach, emphasising the health benefits of improved air quality. The city also encountered coordination challenges among municipal units, requiring regular consultations and the distribution of guiding documents to align objectives. Additionally, legal complexities had to be navigated, including adherence to national laws and securing approval within the legal framework. Remote sensing studies and data-driven analyses provided a solid foundation for overcoming these hurdles and ensuring robust decision-making.

Despite these efforts, the implementation of Kraków’s LEZ has been postponed, following a court ruling and required updates to Polish law. On 12 June 2025, the Krakow City Council adopted a resolution to introduce the Low Emission Zone in Krakow starting from 1 January 2026. TheThe implementation timeline includes a transitional period (2026-2028) allowing paid access for non-compliant vehicles, followed by full enforcement in 2029, with complete prohibition for vehicles not meeting emission standards.

During this interim period, the city is engaging with residents to refine the regulations. An extensive public information campaign is underway, highlighting the impact of transport-related air pollution and the benefits of the LEZ. Surveys are being prepared to assess residents' awareness and expectations, with the results feeding into a revised LEZ resolution. 

Moreover, vehicle compliance is planned to be demonstrated through a combination of automatic verification, pre-notification and identification stickers. Automatic verification will primarily rely on data from the Central Register of Vehicles for most vehicles registered in Poland, while some categories of vehicles, including those registered outside of Poland, vehicles used for medical services or for disabled persons, require pre-notification, which can be completed electronically or at designated points. Vehicles that are positively verified may obtain special stickers as visual confirmation of eligibility. Cross-border users will need to provide personal and vehicle information, including a copy of the registration certificate and, optionally, emission standard details. The system will be designed to be user-friendly, with a multilingual electronic filing platform available to facilitate the registration process for foreign drivers. 

Figure 1: Proposed area initially covered by the LEZ (Source: Dynaxibility4CE-DT123-ActionPlan-Kraków)

Parma

Similarly, Parma developed an action plan for implementing a comprehensive UVAR, known as the Green Area (Area Verde). This initiative aims to address air quality challenges caused by traffic-related pollution while promoting sustainable urban mobility. The UVAR was strategically integrated into Parma’s SUMP to align with broader transport and environmental policies. 

The planning process was characterised by inclusivity and strong stakeholder engagement. The Municipality of Parma worked closely with public institutions, private enterprises, research organisations and local associations. Through workshops and thematic discussions, stakeholders jointly identified the actions and investments required to ensure the UVAR’s success. The co-planning process also addressed critical operational aspects, including exemption rules, activation timelines and vehicle categories, ensuring that the regulations met community needs and were supported by residents. This participatory approach helped Parma overcome challenges and design a robust, well-supported UVAR.

However, the implementation phase posed several challenges, including securing public acceptance, promoting behavioural change, and ensuring integration with existing mobility systems. To address these issues, Parma launched public awareness campaigns and included plans for incentives, such as subsidised taxation for EVs or public transport tickets, to encourage a shift towards shared and electric mobility. Additionally, the city streamlined traffic, improved road safety for cyclists and pedestrians, and expanded shared mobility services, making sustainable alternatives more accessible. Enforcement mechanisms, such as electronic access control systems, were introduced to ensure compliance with LEZ regulations, enabling efficient monitoring of vehicle access based on EURO emission standards.

Parma has made significant progress in preparing for the expansion of its UVAR. New transit and parking permit management systems are being finalised and are planned to become operational by early 2026 (tendering process currently ongoing, with planned subsequent testing and deployment). This system should facilitate permit issuance while addressing the complexities of managing exemptions for various users. Alongside these technological advancements, Parma is strengthening last-mile and micro-mobility services to provide efficient alternatives to private car use, further supporting the UVAR’s effectiveness.

The infrastructure deployment for the planned UVAR is set to be finalised in 2026. Following this, Parma will enter a testing and transition phase for the LEZ extension during 2026, evaluating economic and social impact, to prepare for the LEZ entering operation in 2027, with new regulations as part of its ongoing commitment to improving air quality and fostering sustainable urban mobility. The updated measures will include stricter restrictions on diesel-powered vehicles and establish new regulations limiting access for gas/methane and petrol vehicles. This is expected to significantly reduce harmful NOx and PM emissions from older engines, thereby contributing to the city’s environmental goals.

Figure 2: Planned extension of the LEZ (Source: Comune di Parma Area Verde LEZ)

By implementing these stricter regulations and expanding its UVAR framework, Parma aims to create a healthier urban environment, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance the quality of life for its residents. The deployment will follow a phased approach, allowing residents and businesses to adapt to the evolving standards.

Vehicle compliance is primarily expected to be demonstrated through a combination of pre-registration and automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems. A dedicated web platform is under development where cross-border users will be able to pre-register their vehicles by submitting relevant data and uploading documentation that verifies compliance with the LEZ requirements. Once pre-registered, vehicles can be automatically identified through the ANPR system, which reads license plates and cross-references the data available in the system to confirm eligibility for zone access. Stickers or physical tags are not currently planned as a primary method, although their use has not been ruled out entirely and may be considered for specific cases or during the initial testing phase of the system.

While the integration of foreign vehicle databases remains technically and legally complex, Parma is working on a practical and gradual solution that enables foreign vehicles to access the LEZ. Cross-border users will need to access the online portal, register their vehicle and await confirmation of compliance or receive a temporary access authorisation. Although this manual registration process may involve some additional steps, the city aims to make it as user-friendly and accessible as possible under current constraints.

Results

The case studies in Kraków and Parma underscore the critical importance of a participatory approach in understanding the concerns and priorities of different user groups and developing effective implementation, communication and enforcement strategies. This inclusive process not only fostered transparency and trust, but also helped overcome resistance to the regulations by defining complementary measures to mitigate negative impact. 

For instance, in Kraków, public support for the LEZ has grown to over 50%, despite initial resistance. This progress is largely due to a participatory and effective communication strategy that balances environmental goals alongside the social and economic realities, particularly for vulnerable groups. 

Likewise, cross-sector cooperation and integrated planning emerged as crucial factors in ensuring a comprehensive strategy that takes into account impact and solutions on multiple levels. Such a holistic approach enabled the cities to address complex urban challenges more effectively and create synergies between different sectors, ultimately enhancing the overall success and acceptance of UVAR measures.

Furthermore, the definition of a clear monitoring and evaluation strategy, with specific indicators to assess the performance of the solution, is of strategic importance. A well-structured evaluation process not only ensures the long-term effectiveness of the measures but also enhances adaptability to changing needs and concerns, thereby fostering public acceptance and compliance.

These recommendations, along with additional guidance, are included in the Dynaxibility4CE Topic Guide on UVARs within SUMPs. It focuses on strategies and managerial approaches for improving low-carbon mobility planning in functional urban areas (FUAs) through UVAR initiatives. The guide provides comprehensive recommendations on implementing UVARs, taking into account the broader impact on FUAs, and including case studies and best practice examples from across Europe. The document harmonises various guidance materials produced by EU-funded projects and ensures compatibility with the European Commission’s guidelines on sustainable urban mobility plans.

Figure 3: Marking of the clean transport zone in Kraków. (Source: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/eng-2021-0077/html)

Challenges, opportunities and transferability 

The methodologies and strategies implemented by both Parma and Kraków in their commitment to enhancing urban mobility and improving air quality serve as valuable examples of how cities can implement innovative low-carbon mobility solutions. However, barriers may limit their transferability to other cities and contexts. 

A primary barrier is the lack of political will and/or of a supportive legal framework. Without strong political commitment and appropriate legislation, cities may struggle to enforce these regulations effectively, particularly as public resistance can also pose a considerable challenge. Overcoming this resistance requires robust public engagement, clear communication and complementary measures, such as improved public transport and incentives for cleaner vehicles, to mitigate negative impact and gain public support. 

Moreover, substantial resources may be required for a comprehensive planning and participation process. Many cities may lack the financial and human resources needed to engage stakeholders, conduct thorough analyses and develop tailored implementation strategies. 

Some key lessons and transferable good practice examples include the importance of early engagement with economic stakeholders in the design of UVARs, to balance environmental goals with business continuity. Flexibly timed access windows and well-calibrated exemptions help ensure that essential urban functions like deliveries and tourism are not unduly disrupted. Cities that communicate clearly and offer easy-to-use digital tools, such as apps or unified online portals, tend to see better compliance and acceptance. 

For cross-border users, the cases outlined above highlight the need for practical and user-friendly solutions, like dedicated registration platforms, to facilitate compliance and monitoring. While a harmonised European labelling system would streamline compliance in the future, cities can already replicate good practice examples such as unified access/payment portals and flexible, monitored exemptions. The overarching lesson is to prioritise clarity, accessibility and adaptability to local and cross-border needs.

In-depth

Dynaxibility4CE Action Plan Kraków

Dynaxibility4CE Action Plan Parma

Dynaxibility4CE Topic Guide for UVAR in SUMP

https://programme2014-20.interreg-central.eu/Content.Node/Dynaxibility4CE.html 

Author: Daniel Franco 

Views and opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not reflect those of the European Commission. 

Photo credits © -Dynaxibility4CE Project, Comune di Parma Area Verde LEZ, Maciej Mikulski et al